Table 1 Comparison of spherical CNC characteristics obtained from various preparation methods and raw materials

CCW

H₂SO₄ acid hydrolysis

55 wt% H₂SO₄

1

45

50:1

31

95

14 ± 4

This study

Baby diaper waste

H₂SO₄ acid hydrolysis

60 wt% H₂SO₄

2

37

9:1

–

–

10–20

[36]

Bleached pine Kraft pulp

H₂SO₄ acid hydrolysis

55 vol% H₂SO₄

0.5

35

25:1

–

85.26

–

[37]

Royal palm tree

H₂SO₄ acid hydrolysis

64 wt% H₂SO₄

0.33

35

20:1

48.8

70.7

–

[19]

Sago seed shells

H₂SO₄ acid hydrolysis

64 wt% H₂SO₄

0.75

45

9:1

–

72

10–15

[10]

Bleached aspen kraft pulp

H₂SO₄ acid hydrolysis

64 wt% H₂SO₄

0.5

45

10.5:1

25.62

84.86

3.38

[20]

Cotton waste

Ultrasound during H₂SO₄ acid hydrolysis

50 vol% H₂SO₄

4.75

–

10:1

–

81.23

50

[8]

Empty fruit bunch fibers

Ultrasound during H₂SO₄ acid hydrolysis

64 wt% H₂SO₄

2

45

–

–

80

30–40

[1]

Waste cotton fabric

Ultrasound during H₂SO₄ acid hydrolysis

63.5 wt% H₂SO₄

3

44

15:1

21.5

84.1

35

[16]

Commercial MCC

Ultrasound blending acid hydrolysis

30 vol% H₂SO₄, 10 vol% HCl

10

68

25.7:1

–

80

60

[38]

Eucalyptus pulp

Compound enzymatic hydrolysis (cellulase and xylanase with the concentration ratio of 9:1)

500 U mL⁻¹ of compound enzyme

5

50

10:1

–

91.21

40

[9]

Waste cotton fiber

Enzymatic hydrolysis and sonication treatment

2.3% cellulase enzyme and 5 g L^− 1 substrate concentration

175

48

–

20

78.98

70

[15]